Brief History of the US Federal Income Tax

Money raised through income tax is used to pay for the programs, benefits, and services provided by the US government for the benefit of the people. Essential services such as national defense, food safety inspections, and federal benefit programs including Social Security and Medicare could not exist without the money raised by the federal income tax. While the federal income tax did not become permanent until 1913, taxes, in some form, have been a part of American history since our earliest days as a nation. Evolution of Income Tax in America While taxes paid by American colonists to Great Britain were one of the main reasons for the Declaration of Independence and ultimately the Revolutionary War, Americas Founding Fathers knew that our young country would need taxes for essential items such as roads and especially defense. Providing the framework for taxation, they included procedures for the enactment of tax law legislation in the Constitution. Under Article I, Section 7 of the Constitution, all bills dealing with revenue and taxation must originate in the House of Representatives. Otherwise, they follow the same legislative process as other bills. Before the Constitution   Before final ratification of the Constitution in 1788, the federal government lacked the direct power to raise revenue. Under the Articles of Confederation, money to pay the national debt was paid by the states in proportions to their wealth and at their discretion. One of the goals of the Constitutional Convention was to ensure that the federal government had the power to levy taxes. Since Ratification of the Constitution Even after the ratification of the Constitution, most federal government revenues were generated through tariffs -- taxes on imported products -- and excise taxes -- taxes on the sale or use of specific products or transactions. Excise taxes were considered regressive taxes because people with lower incomes had to pay a higher percentage of their income than did people with higher incomes. The most recognized federal excise taxes still in existence today include those added to the sales of motor fuels, tobacco, and alcohol. There are also excise taxes on activities, such as gambling, tanning or the use of highways by commercial trucks.​ As true with the modern income tax, those early taxes were far from popular among the people.But with the spirit of the American Revolution and independence still running high, some of the people took their dislike of taxes to far higher level. Between 1786 and 1799, three organized rebellions—all protesting various taxes—challenged the authority of the state and federal governments to generate needed revenue. Shays Rebellion from 1786 to 1787 was raised by a group of farmers in objection to what they considered the unfair methods used by state and local tax collectors. The Whiskey Rebellion of 1794 in western Pennsylvania came in protest to what President George Washingtons Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton wrongly considered an innocuous excise tax â€Å"upon spirits distilled within the United States, and for appropriating the same.† Finally, Fries’ Rebellion of 1799 was led by a group of Pennsylvania Dutch farmers opposed to a new federal government tax on houses, land, and slaves. While the farmers owned lots of land and houses, they were far from keen on paying taxes on slaves none of  them owned. Early Income Taxes Came and Went During the Civil War from 1861 to 1865, the government realized that tariffs and excise taxes alone could not generate enough revenue to both run the government and conduct the war against the Confederacy. In 1862, Congress established a limited income tax only on people who made more than $600 but abolished it in 1872 in favor of higher excise taxes on tobacco and alcohol. Congress re-established an income tax in 1894, only to have the Supreme Court declare it unconstitutional in 1895. 16th Amendment Forward In 1913, with the costs of  Ã‚  World War I looming, ratification of the 16th Amendment permanently established the income tax. The 16th  Amendment states: â€Å"The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.† The 16th Amendment gave Congress the power to tax the incomes of all individuals and the profits of all businesses. The income tax enables the federal government to maintain the military, construct roads and bridges, enforce the laws and federal regulations, and carry out other duties and programs.   By 1918, government revenue generated from the income tax exceeded $1 billion for the first time and topped $5 billion by 1920. The introduction of the mandatory withholding tax on employee wages in 1943 increased tax revenue to almost $45 billion by 1945. In 2010, the IRS collected nearly $1.2 trillion through income tax on individuals and another $226 billion from corporations. The Role of Congress in Taxation According to the US Treasury Department, the goal of Congress in enacting tax-related legislation is to balance the need to raise revenue, the desire to be fair to taxpayers, and the desire to influence the way taxpayers save and spend their money. Income Tax Today, Reality and Controversy As envisioned in 1913, the modern United States income tax is designed to be a â€Å"progressive† tax system, meaning that higher-income earners should pay a larger percentage of their income in taxes than lower-income earners. For example, according to the IRS, the top 1% of income earners in 2008 paid 38% of all U.S. income tax revenue collected, while earning 20% of the total income reported. On the other end of the income scale, the bottom 50% of income earners paid only 3% of all taxes collected, while earning 13% of the total reported income. Despite its progressive payment design, the modern income tax system is often accused of increasing income inequality, the uneven distribution of wealth among the American population. While Congressional Budget Office (CBO) confirms that U.S. federal tax policies substantially reduce income inequality measured after taxes, the unequal distribution of wealth—the gap between rich and poor—remains far wider than in most other developed countries. According to a 2017 report from economist Edward Woolf based on the federal Survey of Consumer Finances, the wealthiest 1% of Americans now own 40% of the country’s wealth, the highest share in the last 50 years. Woolf’s report further shows that the wealth gap between the top 1% of income earners and the bottom 90% has been widening steadily over the past few decades. Without a doubt, income inequality and the social and moral questions involved in closing the wealth gap will remain a hot topic in U.S. politics for years to come.

Cost Information and Decision Making Free Essays

string(54) " construction and fabrication of units of production\." Q 1: 10 marks For what decisions would estimated cost information be useful if you were a hospital administrator? The Director of a Cinema hall? The Marketing vice president of a bank? Cost information is the information about the different costs that are incurred in the operation of the organization or a business process. Here the cost includes all cost like material cost, labor costs, and all other overhead costs that are incurred depending on the type of business they operates. The main objectives of cost information are: 1)To ascertain the cost per unit for different products. We will write a custom essay sample on Cost Information and Decision Making or any similar topic only for you Order Now 2)To have correct analysis about the cost incurred. 3)To disclose source of wastage whether material, time or expenses. 4)To provide requisite data and serve as a guide to price fixing. 5)To reveal the source of economy. 6)To help in preparation of budget. 7)To organize internal audit system to ensure effective working. HOSPITAL ADMINISTRATOR: In hospital, different costs are involved such as on purchase of different kinds of medicines, equipments, antibiotics, etc and for employing different people where they are needed to pay salaries and wages etc. they should also incur transportation cost and other overhead costs for the operation of day to day operations. They should ascertain the cost incurred on the medicines, salaries and wages to the staff and employees, and to know total units consumed during certain period of time, how many people are employed and their effectiveness in their work. So by having cost information, it helps the hospital administrator in making decisions like: a)How much quantity of what medicine should be ordered within the specific time period? b)How many people to be employed and at what wages or salaries? c)What are needed and what not? d)Helps in ascertaining different amount of budget for different activities, materials†¦. Etc. e)It also helps in on what field the training and developments are needed. DIRECTOR OF CINEMA HALL: Being a director of a cinema hall it is very important to have cost information about the total cost and per unit cost incurred while building the hall or the hiring cost, monthly or per unit electric charges, per unit cost of furniture, screen cost, projector and any other cost involved while installing the infrastructure in the hall. So the estimated cost is useful for the Director of cinema hall to: 1. To fixed the rent for the movie screener. 2. Helps in determining the most profitable pricing. 3. Helps to control the cost involved, since the cost information helps in figuring out the unnecessary cost incurred. . To decide the further investment is worthwhile or not. 5. If he screens movie, then it helps in deciding and ascertaining per ticket cost. MARKETING VICE PRESIDENT OF BANK: Here the marketing vice president of the banks deals with the process of giving loan and receiving the deposits from the public, while doing so they have to employ people, they needs stationeries like pen, paper, books, register, desktop, ATM services, fund transfer etc. where it involves costs. So the cost information is very important for: 1. Fixing the interest rates for savings and loans. 2. Helps in budgeting for further development. 3. Helps in deciding whether a particular market should be tapped or not. 4. Whether to invest in new technology or not. 5. Whether to expand the business or not. Q2: 10 marks â€Å"Costs may be classified in a variety of ways according to their nature and the information needs of management. † Explain this statement giving examples of classification required for different purposes. Cost is the amount of resources, expressed in monetary terms, given up in exchange for some goods and resources. Cost classification is the process of grouping cost according to their common attributes. Careful classification of cost is of vital importance in order to identify the cost with cost center and cost units. With respect to their purpose the same cost is classified in different ways as follows: 1. By Nature or Elements, or analytical classification: According to this classification the cost are divided into three categories such as materials, labor, and expenses. A)Materials cost: are those cost involved for the materials that are used for the production of the particular products. It can be further classified into direct material cost and indirect material cost. Direct material costs are those cost involved for those materials which can be identified in the product and can conveniently measure and directly charge to the product. Example: timber used in manufacturing furniture. Indirect material cost are those cost involved on those materials that do not physically becomes the part of finished product and are generally inexpensive items which may or may not become a part of the finished product. Example: threads used in stitching ghos. B)Labor costs: are those cost involved for the human efforts by which raw materials are converted into finished products. It can be further classified into direct labor cost and indirect labor costs. Direct labor costs are those cost that are paid to those workers who are directly engaged in converting raw materials into finished products. Example: wages paid to the machine operators. Indirect labor costs are those cost that are paid to those people that are not directly engaged in the production operations but only assist in the production process. Example: wages for store keepers. C)Expenses: are those cost other than the material costs and labor costs. It can be also classified further as direct expenses and indirect expenses. Direct expenses are those costs other than direct material cost and direct labor cost. Example: cost of patent right. Indirect expenses are those expenses other than indirect material cost and indirect labor cost. Example: rents and rates. 2. Functional classification: Here the costs are classified according to the different aspects of basic managerial activities involved in the operation of business under taking. A)Production or manufacturing cost: this is the total cost involved in manufacture, construction and fabrication of units of production. You read "Cost Information and Decision Making" in category "Essay examples" Example: wages, raw material cost etc. B)Administrative cost: this is the cost involved in administering the process of production. Example: salaries, office rent and lighting cost etc. C)Selling and distribution cost: this is the cost involved in the process of taking finished products for sale to the final consumers. Example: carriage outward, salesman’s salary etc. So any cost involved in administration and selling and distribution are also termed as commercial cost. 3. By degree of traceability to the product: In this case the costs are classified with their degree of traceability, such as direct and indirect cost. A)Direct cost: are those costs which are incurred for and may be conveniently identified with a particular cost center or cost unit. Example: materials used and labor employed in manufacturing furniture. B)Indirect cost: are those cost which are incurred for the benefit of a number of cost centers or cost units and cannot be conveniently identified with particular cost center or cost unit. Example: rent for the building, machinery depreciation etc. 4. By changes in activity or volume: Here the costs are classified according to their behavior in relation to changes in the level of activity or volume of production. A)Fixed cost: are those cost which commonly remains fixed in total amount with increase or decrease in the volume of output or productive activity for a given period of time. With increase in production the per unit fixed cost decreases and vice versa. Fixed cost can be further classified as follows: i)Committed cost: are those cost that are the result of inevitable consequences of commitments previously made or are incurred to maintain certain facilities and cannot be quickly eliminated. Example: rent, insurance etc. ii)Policy cost: are those cost incurred for implementing some management policies as executive development, housing etc. and are often discretionary. iii)Managed cost: are those cost that are incurred to insure the operating existence of the company. Example: staff service etc. iv)Discretionary cost: are those cost which are not related to the operation but can be controlled by the management. These costs usually arises due to some policy decision and new researches etc. and can be eliminated or reduced to desirable level at the discretion of the manufacturer. )Step cost: are those cost which are constant for given level of output and then increases by a fixed amount at a higher level of output. B)Variable cost: are those cost which vary in total in direct proportion to the volume of output. These costs per unit remain relatively constant with changes in production. Example: direct labor cost, material cost etc. such cost are also known as product cost b ecause they depends on the quantum of product rather than on time. C)Semi-variable cost: are those cost which are partly fixed and partly variable. Example: telephone expenses, depreciation etc. 5. By controllability: cost are classified according to whether or not they are influenced by the action of given member of the under taking. A)Controllable costs: are those cost which can be influenced by the action of specified member of an undertaking. It is the costs which are within the control of the management. Examples: materials cost, labor cost etc. B)Uncontrollable cost: are those cost which cannot be influenced by the action of a specific member of an undertaking. It is the costs which are not within the control of the management. Example: rent of the building, managerial salaries etc. . By normality: Here the costs are classified according to whether these costs are normally incurred at a given level of output in the conditions in which that level of activity is normally attained. A)Normal cost: it is the cost which is normally incurred at a given level of output in the conditions in which that level of output is normally attained. It is the par of cost of production. B) Ab normal cost: it is the cost which is not normally incurred at a given level of output in the conditions in which that level of output is normally attained. It is not the part of cost of production and is charged to costing profit and loss account. 7. By relation with accounting period: It is the cost which is incurred in purchasing or maintaining an asset either to earn income or increasing the earning capacity. A)Capital cost: cost incurred in purchasing an assets or increasing the earning capacity of the business is called capital cost. Example: the cost of rolling machine in case of steel plant. B)Revenue cost: it is the cost involved in order to maintain the earning capacity of the concern such as cost of maintaining an assets or running a business. Example: cost of materials used in production, labor charges paid etc. 8. By time: As per the period or the time the cost is incurred the cost is classified in to historical cost and predetermined cost. A)Historical cost: are those cost which are ascertained after being incurrence. It is based on recorded facts, can be verified being supported by evidences and are objective. B)Predetermined cost: are estimated costs, since they are computed in advance of production taking consideration the previous records of cost. 9. According to planning to control: planning and control are two important functions of management. Cost accounting furnishes information to the management which is helpful in the due discharge of these two functions. A)Budgeted cost: it represent an estimate of expenditure for different phases of business operations such as manufacturing, administration, sales, research and development etc. coordinated in a well conceived framework for a period of time in future which subsequently becomes the written expression of managerial targets to be achieved. Example: raw material cost budget, labor cost budget etc. B)Standard cost: it is the cost where the budgeted costs are translated into actual operation through the instrument of standard cost. It is defined as the predetermined cost based on a technical estimate of for materials, labor and overhead for a selected period of time and for a prescribed set of working conditions. So the standard cost is determination, in advance of production of what should be the cost. 10. By association with the product: A) Product cost: are those costs which are traceable to the product and are included in inventory evaluation. It comprises direct materials, direct labor and manufacturing overheads in case of manufacturing concerns. These are used for valuation of inventory and are shown in the balance sheet till they are sold. B)Period costs: are those cost incurred on the basis of time such as rent, salaries etc. These may relate to administration and selling costs essential to keep the business running. Though these are not associated with production and are necessary to generate revenue but cannot be assigned to a product. These are charged to the period in which these are incurred and treated as expenses. 11. For managerial decision: are those cost that are classified according to their usage in the managerial decision making. A)Marginal cost: it is the total of the variable cost i. e. , prime cost plus variable overheads. It is the distinction between fixed and variable costs. Here the fixed costs are ignored and only variable costs are taken into consideration for determining the cost of products and value of work-in-progress and finished goods. B)Out of pocket cost or explicit cost: are those cost which involves payment to the outsiders and thereby gives rise to the cash expenditure as opposed to such costs as depreciation, which do not involve any cash expenditure. Such costs are relevant for price fixation during recession or when make or buy decision is to be made. C)Differential cost: are those cost that the change in cost due to change in the level of activity or pattern or method of production is known as differential cost. If the change increases the cost then it is known as incremental cost. If there is decrease in cost resulting from decrease in output, the differences is known as decremental cost. D)Sunk cost: are those cost which are irrecoverable cost and is caused by complete abandonment of a plant. It is the written down value of the abandoned plant less its salvage value. E)Imputed and notional cost: are those cost which are notional and does not involve any cash outlay. It is the value of a benefit where no actual cost is incurred. Examples: notional rent charged on the premises owned by the proprietor, interest on capital for which no interest is paid etc. F)Opportunity cost: it is the maximum possible alternative earning that might have been earned if the productive capacity or services had been put to some alternative use. G)Replacement cost: it is the cost at which there could be purchase of an asset or material identical to that which is being replaced or revalued. It is the replacement cost at the current market price. H)Avoidable and unavoidable cost: avoidable costs are those cost which can be eliminated if a particular product or department with which they are directly related, is discontinued. Unavoidable costs are those cost which will not be eliminated with the discontinuation of product or department. I)Explicit cost: are those cost which involves immediate payment of cash. They can be easily measured. Example: salaries, wages, etc. J)Implicit cost: are those costs that do not involve immediate payment of cash and are known as economic cost. Example: depreciation etc. QUESTION 3. COST SHEET FOR 2, 00,000 cases PARTICULARSUNITSCOST PER UNITTOTAL COST direct material cost2,00,00061,200,000 Direct labor cost2,00,00091,800,000 Direct expenses2,00,0004800,000 PRIME COST2,00,000193,800,000 FACTORY OVERHEAD Factory expenses2,00,0003600,000 WORK COST2,00,000224,400,000 OFFICE/ADMINISTRATIVE OVERHEAD Administrative cost2,00,00061,200,000 COST OF PRODUCTION/COST OF GOODS SOLD2,00,000285,600,000 SELLING AND DISTRIBUTION OVERHEAD Marketing cost2,00,0001200,000 COST OF SALE2,00,000295,800,000 PROFIT2,00,0005. 81,160,000 SALES2,00,00034. 86,960,000 ? COST SHEET SHOWING COST INVOLVED FOR 5,000cases PARTICULARSUNITSCOST PER UNITTOTAL COST direct material cost5,000630,000 Direct labor cost5,000945,000 Direct expenses5,000420,000 PRIME COST5,0001995,000 FACTORY OVERHEAD Factory expenses5,000315,000 WORK COST5,000221,10,000 OFFICE/ADMINISTRATIVE OVERHEAD Administrative cost5,000630,000 COST OF PRODUCTION/COST OF GOODS SOLD5,000281,40,000 SELLING AND DISTRIBUTION OVERHEAD Marketing cost5,00015,000 COST OF SALE5,000291,45,000 PROFIT5,0005. 829,000 SALES5,00034. 81,74,000 Here the cost involved in production of 1unit of screwdriver amounts to Nu. 29 and when we add the profit of cost plus 20percent, per unit cost sums up to Nu. 34. 8. But here the army representative ignored the price fixed by the company saying that the company bypassed the using selling channel and the army representative wants to pay only Nu. 22. 80 Per unit. So in this case I recommend that the price should be Nu. 33. (28*120%) per unit, since the company bypassed the contract of usual selling channel but they had incurred both administrative and factory overheads for the production of the screwdrivers and on the other hand both the administrative overhead and factory overhead are fixed cost that it doesn’t change with the volume of products produced. On the other hand the company had charged only the fixed factory and administrative overhead cost and they excluded all variable factory and administrative overhead cost, so the price per unit should be Nu. 33. 6 per unit. How to cite Cost Information and Decision Making, Essay examples

Human genome project Essay Paper Example For Students

Human genome project Essay Paper A genome is defined as the complete collection of an organisms genetic material. The human genome is composed of about 50,000 to 100,000 genes located on 23 pairs of chromosomes in a human cell. It is said that a single human chromosome may contain more than 250 million DNA base pairs, and it is estimated that the entire human genome consists of about 3 billion base pairs. The DNA is gathered through blood samples taken from many different people. Though each person has a unique set of DNA the difference in a given pair of samples is less than 1 percent making the differences pale in The Human Genome Project is an international collaboration of scientists whos goal is to gain a basic understanding of the genetic blueprint of a human being. This information is found in each cell of the body, encoded in the DNA. The intent of this project is to identify all genes in the nucleus of a human cell, to map where those genes are on the chromosomes of the nucleus, and to determine the seqeunc ing or the order of The idea to undertake such a project was came about through a series of scientific conferences held between 1985 and 1987. The actual project ,however, did not begin until 1990 with the expansion of funding from the NIH and DOE. There are many nations involved with this project as part of an informal pact including France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and many other european nations. Also in an effort to speed up the mapping and sequencing process several private companies have been enlisted to help Today there is a lot of research being done under the umbrella of the Human Genome Project. For instince gene therapy is being developed as a very real cure for such hereditary diseases as Cystic Fibrosis and Parkinsons where somewhere in the genetic make up of the body there is a glich tht alows the nervous tissue of the brain to deteriorate at a slow but steady rate. With gene therapy we will be able to replace the tissue in the brain with correctly funtionin g tissue from an animal such as a pig. As of early 1999 the Human Genome Project was ahead of schedule. There is said to be nearly 10 percent of the genome sequenced already or about 7,600 genes have been mapped to particular chromosomes. Also, researchers have sequenced the complete genomes of several other organisms such as E. Coli . This should help scientists to find parallels between our genes and the genes of other organisms. When completed this project will reap great rewards for the time and effort put in. Biologists will be able to look at detailed DNA information that will help in understanding the structure, organization, and function of DNA in chromosomes. Genome maps of other creatures will provide a way for scientists to learn more about more complex biological systems such as our own. In other words this information will revolutionize the future biological studies. There are however some controversial issues raised by the findings of this study. One worry is that soon we will be able to clone humans for body parts in order to save lives. On the surface this seems like a good idea however if put in the wrong hands this information could be used to make clones of armies for unstable countries or it could be used to clone those people who had bad influences on history such as hitler. Besides this issue there is a religious question that is raised. Should we as humans be able to play god and create life or should we let sleeping dogs lie and leave this project alone. Though there seems to be many scary implications to the continuation of this project there is little After doing the research for this project and learning about the implications of this project I feel that we should continue in good faith and hope that the technology is never used for non-medicinal purposes. My grandmother suffers from parkinsons disease and there is nothing I would l ike more than to see a cure developed through gene therepy for her disease and others like it. In my opinion this project should continue full steaam Bibliography:

Family Communication free essay sample

Final Paper Introduction In today’s society many families communication has become a burning issue. Families spend most of their time in communicating, for the execution of routine activities everyone needs assistance and support from others. Then communication process starts, no one can communicate alone. There‘s always a sender and one or more receivers. Communication is a source of delivering messages from one to another. Through communication people share their ideas, feelings, thoughts and emotions. Communication plays a vital role in the working in families.Family Systems theory attempts to explain a way of explaining family interactions. It’s also a way of analyzing the way families communicates with one another. Family systems have many different systems properties. These properties include wholeness, Interdependence, Non- Summaitry, Openness/closeness, homeostasis, morphogenesis and Equifinality. Social Construction Theory is a theoretical perspective that centers upon the importance of meanings from human behavior. (Turner West, 2006 pg. We will write a custom essay sample on Family Communication or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 26). This theory contributes a focus on the meaning-making function of communication that is lacking in the systems explanation.Relational Dialectics Theory refers to the book titled A Handbook of Personal Relationships, edited by Steve Duck. The title A Dialectical Perspective on Communication Strategies in Relationship Development, written by Lesile Baxter, presents the basic strategies for an ideal relationship. The theories in which Baxter discusses describe the communication actions that a couple must use to establish, maintain, and dissolve their personal relationships. In this paper it will explain the different perspectives on family communication. Relationship:Family Systems attempt to explain a way of explaining family interactions. It’s also a way of analyzing the way families communicates with one another. Family systems have many different systems properties. These properties include wholeness, Interdependence, Non- Summaitry, Openness/closeness, homeostasis, morphogenesis and Equifinality. Out of the six properties I will only discuss wholeness and interdependence. These are the ones fit my family well. In this paper I will discuss the different systems and boundaries that relate to my family. Next I will discuss suprasystems and â€Å"Who’s in† and â€Å"Who’s out† approach. First, wholeness is defined as when a family is not simply of its members added together. It also can be referred as to the idea that a system cannot be fully comphrended by a study of its individual’s parts in isolation from one another. When I talk about the wholeness system within my family many other families think we are a very close family, but I reality we are very distant with each other. For example, when others see my family in public the will consider us as being family- oriented, caring and supportive of each other. In reality we are very distant; everyone in my family is not supportive of anyone’s goals or achievements.Each person in my family has their own personalities on life and how they want others to perceive them in public. Most of my family members love to be around people who are negative instead of positive. For as myself, I would personally say that I always hung around positive people. I have to keep my reputation, being in college has helped me to understand the value of your own reputation. Interdependence is defined as systems thinking holding that the behaviors of systems members’ co-construct the system and all members are affected by shifts and changes. The interdependence system is where my family is the strongest.For example, in 2010 while I was working at Dollar General as assistant manager. A life threatening situation occurred; I thought February 07, 2010 was the last day of my life. I was held at gunpoint and was demanded to give the robber all the money out of the safe. After giving the robber all the money, he still had the gun point to my head. I’m so blessed to be living today. Leaving work on this particular day. I called my family; I told them what had happen to me. There whole attitudes and behaviors shifted quickly. I felt like this is the type of family; I need every day in my life.Not when something tragic happens. I need their support as well as they need my support. This is where the interdependence system plays a major part with my family. They are very concerned when someone in my family has been through a tragic situation or even when someone gets a promotion on their job, they are happy. Secondly, I will discuss who’s in and who out approach of boundaries of my family. Boundaries are defined as mark limits in the family. It can also be internal or external. An external boundary decides family membership, delineating who is a part of the family and who is not part of he family. An internal boundary is defined as the way family members communicate within their families. The family members, I would consider who’s out of our family would be my brother and uncle. They both have a drug addiction, although some of my family does not agree with their addition. There is a boundary ambiguity with respect of the two membership of the family. I still believe we they are a part of my family. No matter what condition they are in, as a family we should be able to help them seek help to an AAA program. Internal boundaries are dominant in my family rather than external. My family likes to keep secrets. We keep a closed circle when it comes down to family business. Everyone else in my family is considering as being â€Å"who’s in†. Lastly, I will discuss the suprasystems. Suprasystems are under the hierarchy systems. For as my family we are under the personal subsystem which refers to the fact that each individual represent his or her own separate system. Each person in my family is his or her own separate person, but also separate and interdependent as a whole. It is not possible to control everything that goes in and out of your family.My mother and aunts will not follow the preamble boundary; they are the type of family members who will tell every secret they hear. Not only will they tell other family members but it has come down to a point where they will tell people who are not a part of our family. I find it be amusing because they do not like other people in their business. On the other hand, many of my family members will abide by the impermeable boundary, simply because we know how to keep things in our family that we do not want to be told. The information that is not shared outside my family is if someone goes to prison or if a person has an illness.In conclusion, there are many families who do not coincide with different boundaries or even by following the systems theory. I found this paper to interesting to learn about the different people who I consider as my family. We all have different personalities, goals and each of us has a different view on life. Family Meaning Social Construction Theory is a theoretical perspective that centers upon the importance of meanings from human behavior. (Turner West, 2006 pg. 26). This theory contributes a focus on the meaning-making function of communication that is lacking in the systems explanation.

The Real Shape of Raindrops

The Real Shape of Raindrops Much like the snowflake symbolizes all things winter, a teardrop is a symbol of water and rain. We see them in illustrations and even on weather maps on TV. The truth is, a raindrop assumes several shapes as it falls from a cloud- none of which resemble teardrops. What is the true shape of a raindrop? Lets follow it along its journey from cloud to ground and find out! Droplets Raindrops, which are collections of millions of tiny cloud droplets, start out as small and round spheres. But as raindrops fall, they lose their rounded shape thanks to the tug-of-war between two forces: surface tension (the waters outer surface film which acts to hold the drop together) and the air flow which pushes up against the raindrops bottom as it falls.   Sphere to Hamburger Bun When the drop is small (under 1 mm across), surface tension wins out and pulls it into a spherical shape. But as the drop falls, colliding with other drops as it does so, it grows in size and it falls faster which increases the pressure on its bottom. This added pressure causes the raindrop to flatten on the bottom. Since the air flow on the bottom of the water drop is greater than the airflow at its top, the raindrop  remains curved on top, the raindrop resembles a hamburger bun. Thats right, raindrops have more in common with hamburger buns than falling on them and ruining your cookout- they are shaped like  them! Jelly Bean to Umbrella As the raindrop grows even bigger, the pressure along its bottom increases further and presses a dimple into it, making the raindrop look jelly-bean-shaped. When the raindrop grows to a large size (around 4 mm across or larger) the air flow has pressed so deeply into the water drop that it now resembles a parachute or an  umbrella. Soon after, the air flow presses through the raindrops top and breaks it apart into smaller drops.       To help visualize this process, watch the video, Anatomy of a Raindrop, courtesy of NASA.    Visualizing the Shape Due to the high speeds at which water droplets fall through the atmosphere, it is very difficult to see the variety of shapes it takes in nature without the use of high-speed photography. However, there is a way to model this in the lab, the classroom, or at home. An experiment you can do at home represents an analysis of raindrop shape through experimentation. Now that you know about raindrop shape and size, continue your raindrop exploration by learning why some rainshowers feel warm and others are cool to the touch.   SourcesAre Raindrops Tear-Shaped?  The USGS Water Science School

Sustainable Agriculture and Ecology Research Paper

Sustainable Agriculture and Ecology - Research Paper Example When an ecosystem is able to maintain and retain productivity for a long period of time, it can be classified as sustainable. There are numerous defects in the methods by which humans conduct their agricultural activity. They often consider their needs and neglect those of other living organisms. This in turn results in destruction of these organisms which can have an effect on the ecological cycle and result in undesirable outputs from farming. The prolonged effects of such destructive methods of farming also include diminishing of biodiversity. The essence of agriculture is to create products for humans which they can use for food, or for recreational uses in cases of tobacco. Some individuals and countries also depend on agriculture for economic purposes; however this raises the question, if farming is intended to be beneficial and humans rely on the lands for numerous purposes, what is the essence of damaging land that brings a vast amount of benefits to society? While food produ ction in the past century has risen gradually over time, it has adversely affected soil productivity, which will have affects on food availability in the near future. Even though agriculture is a basis for humans well being by providing food, it also resulting in consequences on a wide scale to soil indiscreetly and must be changed to maintain needs of present without compromising food production for future generations. For this reason agricultural scientists have strategized methods by which humans can farm and benefit both themselves and the environment. The term sustainable agriculture was first used by Gordon McClymont, an Australian agricultural scientist. This paper will analyze the biological methods which have been used in sustainable agriculture and illustrate the mechanisms by which they are used. It will also analyze the reasons why implementing such policies is beneficial to society. One major benefit of sustainable agriculture is that it helps preserve and maintain the ecosystem, which despite ignorance of most individuals, has an essential part in many aspects of human life. Some of the major energy sources used by humans have been predicted to run out in the next few decades. Hence, the country will require ecosystems as an energy source and to some extent a financial resource (Day et al., 2009). Ecosystems as an energy source are also beneficial to the quality of air in the environment as they produce less harmful byproducts. The biodiversity in different nations will determine the amount of energy sources, which can in turn result in an improvement the nation’s economy. This situation requires ecologists to further studies into functioning of ecosystems and find ways in which they can be preserved and used as energy sources (Day et al., 2009). Other strategies such as implementing Participatory Learning and Action Research and Systems Ecology for improvement of approaches taken in research have been suggested. This in turn will enable t he formulation of strategies that allow a smooth transition of current agricultural methods into approaches that are more sustainable. The two procedures have similar foundations and hence can be merged and utilized to obtain sustainable agricultural transitions (Eksvard & Rydberg, 2010). The methods can be used to improve the decision making as they analyze human activity from a broader perspective and offer a large scale upon which patterns of human activity are compared. These two

A reflection on your personal development over the first month of Assignment

A reflection on your personal development over the first month of university - Assignment Example I also found out that I can easily adapt to different kinds of people and environment. I can easily work in team which is an asset because there are some school works that needs group effort. These strengths pose an opportunity for me to get better grades and because I am genuinely interested in my lessons and that I may have a bigger social network after I graduate college. My weakness is that I tend to procrastinate school works especially if they are challenging. Getting started is a challenge for me albeit I work harder once I get started. I am aware that this is a common challenges among student but I do not want to make that as an excuse to justify procrastination. I have to correct this because procrastinating threatens my performance in school and ultimately my grade because procrastination makes me cram during exams. Attainable – I believe that my 85% grade goal is attainable because it is within the 100% grading. I just need to work hard for it and if I need help, I would ask assistance for tutorial to reach that grade. Moreover, the goal of graduating my course in the university is also attainable as most students who studied and work hard for their lessons graduated. Realistic – Considering my aptitude, interest for school and ability to work hard, getting an 85% percentile grade is very realistic. I also do not see any reason or impediment why will I not graduate college eventually knowing that I have the capacity just like the others who have graduated. Time bound – the 85% percentile grade goal is only for this semester. At the end of the semester, I will do another personal reflection on my performance and then set another SMART goals. In principle, I will increase my grade objective in the succeeding semesters once I have achieved my initial objective. I am driven to achieve my goal to prepare myself for the future, make my family proud and also to become a learned person. The only factor that I